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Full Description
The intake of food by fishes is an area of study that is of great importance to the applied sciences of fisheries and aquaculture for a number of reasons. For example a thorough knowledge of factors influencing the ingestion of feed can lead to successful manipulation of the rearing environment of cultured fishes, thereby ensuring improved growth performance and feed utilisation, and decreasing the amount of waste (and consequent pollution) per unit of fish produced.
This important book, which has arisen out of a European Union COST programme, illustrates how insights into the biological and environmental factors that underlie the feeding responses of fish may be used to address practical issues of feed management.
Food Intake in Fish contains carefully edited contributions from internationally recognised scientists, providing a book that is an invaluable tool and reference to all those involved in aquaculture, especially those working in the aquaculture feed industry and scientific personnel in commercial and research aquaculture facilities. This book should also find a place on the shelves of fish biologists and physiologists and as a reference in libraries of universities, research establishments and aquaculture equipment companies.
Contents
List of Contributors v
Preface xvii
1 Feed Composition and Analysis 1
Malcolm Jobling
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Nutrient classes 1
1.2.1 Proteins 2
1.2.2 Lipids 4
1.2.3 Carbohydrates 6
1.2.4 Vitamins 9
1.2.5 Minerals 10
1.3 Analysis of feeds and feedstuffs 10
1.3.1 Protein analysis 13
1.3.2 Lipid analysis 14
1.3.3 Automated methods of analysis 14
1.4 Nutrient availability and feed evaluation 15
1.4.1 Nutrient absorption and digestibility 16
1.4.2 Growth trials and biological evaluation 18
1.5 Concluding comments 20
1.6 References 21
2 Feed Types, Manufacture and Ingredients 25
Malcolm Jobling, Emidio Gomes and Jorges Dias
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Feed types 25
2.3 Manufacture of dry feeds 26
2.3.1 Compressed pellets 29
2.3.2 Expanded pellets 29
2.3.3 Extruded pellets 29
2.3.4 Special types of feeds 30
2.4 Feed ingredients 31
2.4.1 Protein sources of animal origin 31
2.4.2 Single-cell proteins (SCPs) 33
2.4.3 Antinutritional factors (ANFs) 34
2.4.4 Plant protein sources 35
2.4.5 Lipid sources 36
2.4.6 Other ingredients 37
2.5 Feed characteristics and feed acceptability 37
2.6 Concluding comments 40
2.7 References 42
3 Techniques for Measuring Feed Intake 49
Malcolm Jobling, Denis Covès, Børge Damsgård, Henrik R. Kristiansen, Juha Koskela, Thuridur E. Petursdottir, Sunil Kadri and Olafur Gudmundsson
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Stomach contents analysis 49
3.2.1 Technical aspects 50
3.2.2 Applications and limitations 53
3.3 Dyestuffs and chemical markers 55
3.3.1 Technical aspects 55
3.3.2 Applications and limitations 57
3.4 Direct observation and video recording 58
3.4.1 Technical aspects 58
3.4.2 Applications and limitations 61
3.5 On-demand feeder with feed waste monitor 62
3.5.1 Technical aspects 62
3.5.2 Applications and limitations 63
3.6 X-Radiography 67
3.6.1 Technical aspects 67
3.6.2 Applications and limitations 69
3.7 General discussion 74
3.8 References 76
4 Experimental Design in Feeding Experiments 88
Kari Ruohonen, Juhani Kettunen and Jonathan King
4.1 Introduction 88
4.2 How does one design an experiment? 89
4.3 The structural model equation 92
4.4 Sums of squares 93
4.5 Evaluation of the experimental design 93
4.6 The compromise 95
4.7 Sensitivity analysis 97
4.8 Nuisance variables and ways of controlling them 98
4.9 Adding extra factors: why do it and what considerations are necessary? 99
4.10 Measuring individual feed intake - what are the benefits? 100
4.11 What can be done when life becomes more complicated? 103
4.12 Conclusions 106
4.13 References 106
5 Gustation and Feeding Behaviour 108
Charles F. Lamb
5.1 Introduction 108
5.2 Peripheral gustatory sensation 108
5.3 Gustatory pathways in the central nervous system 114
5.4 Taste and feeding behaviours 120
5.5 Conclusions 123
5.6 Acknowledgements 123
5.7 References 124
6 Environmental Factors and Feed Intake: Mechanisms and Interactions 131
Patrick Kestemont and Etienne Baras
6.1 Introduction 131
6.2 Abiotic factors 132
6.2.1 Light 132
6.2.2 Temperature 135
6.2.3 Other physical factors 137
6.2.4 Chemical factors 138
6.3 Biotic factors 141
6.3.1 Stocking density 141
6.3.2 Social structure 142
6.3.3 Predators 143
6.3.4 Human disturbance 144
6.4 Conclusions 145
6.5 References 145
7 Environmental Factors and Feed Intake: Rearing Systems 157
Marie-Laure Bégout Anras, Marilyn Beauchaud, Jon-Erik Juell, Denis Covès and Jean-Paul Lagardère
7.1 Introduction 157
7.2 Feed intake of fish in pond systems 158
7.2.1 Pond characteristics 158
7.2.2 Variability of environmental factors 159
7.2.3 Variations in feed intake in relation to pond environment 162
7.3 Feed intake in fish cages 166
7.3.1 Feed intake in a complex, semi-controlled environment 166
7.3.2 Environmental variation and feeding activity 167
7.3.3 Daily and seasonal feeding patterns 170
7.3.4 Cage management practices 170
7.4 Feed intake in tanks 171
7.4.1 Tank culture systems 172
7.4.2 Environmental variation and feeding activity 173
7.4.3 Tank management practices and possibility of control 175
7.5 Conclusions 177
7.6 References 177
8 Feeding Rhythms 189
Juan Antonio Madrid, Thierry Boujard and F. Javier Sánchez-Vázquez
8.1 Introduction 189
8.2 Feeding rhythms: descriptions and examples 191
8.2.1 Diel rhythms 191
8.2.2 Tidal and lunar rhythms 194
8.2.3 Annual rhythms 195
8.3 Other sources of variability in feeding rhythms 199
8.4 Regulation of feeding rhythms 200
8.4.1 Endogenous control 200
8.5 Conclusions 208
8.6 References 209
9 Feeding Anticipatory Activity 216
F. Javier Sánchez-Vázquez and Juan Antonio Madrid
9.1 Introduction 216
9.1.1 What is feeding anticipatory activity? 216
9.1.2 Biological significance 217
9.1.3 Characteristics of feeding anticipatory activity 218
9.1.4 Behavioural variables showing feeding anticipatory activity 219
9.2 Models to explain anticipation to feeding 221
9.2.1 External versus internal origin 221
9.2.2 Self-sustained feeding-entrainable oscillator (FEO) 222
9.3 Synchronising stimulus for feeding entrainment 224
9.4 Applications 225
9.4.1 Temporal integration 225
9.4.2 Anticipation of meals as an indicator of fish appetite 227
9.4.3 Distribution of fish 227
9.5 Conclusions 228
9.6 References 229
10 Effects of Feeding Time on Feed Intake and Growth 233
Valérie Bolliet, Mezian Azzaydi and Thierry Boujard
10.1 Introduction 233
10.2 Effect of feeding time on growth 234
10.2.1 Finding the optimal feeding time: a problem of dualism? 236
10.3 Effect of feeding time on feed intake and nutrient utilisation 237
10.4 Mechanisms involved in mediating the effects of feeding time on nutrient utilisation 237
10.4.1 Effect of feeding time on endocrine cycles 240
10.5 Feeding time and flesh quality 241
10.6 Conclusions 242
10.7 References 244
11 Effects of Nutritional Factors and Feed Characteristics on Feed Intake 250
Manuel de la Higuera
11.1 Introduction 250
11.2 Physical characteristics and feed intake 250
11.3 Dietary nutrients and sources affecting feed intake 251
11.4 Nutrient selection 255
11.5 Feeding stimulants 257
11.5.1 Feeding stimulants and fish nutrition 260
11.6 Deterrent compounds 261
11.7 Conclusions: feed acceptance and palatability studies 262
11.8 References 262
12 Regulation of Food Intake by Neuropeptides and Hormones 269
Nuria de Pedro and Björn Thrandur Björnsson
12.1 Introduction 269
12.2 Inhibitory peptides 269
12.2.1 Corticotrophin-releasing factor 269
12.2.2 Bombesin 271
12.2.3 Cholecystokinin 272
12.3 Stimulatory peptides 274
12.3.1 Galanin 274
12.3.2 Opioid peptides 275
12.3.3 Neuropeptide Y 278
12.4 Hormones 280
12.4.1 Growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) 280
12.4.2 Hormones regulating metabolism 282
12.5 Conclusions 284
12.6 Acknowledgements 284
12.7 References 285
13 Physiological Effects of Feeding 297
Chris Carter, Dominic Houlihan, Anders Kiessling, Francoise Médale and Malcolm Jobling
13.1 Introduction 297
13.2 Different methods of feeding 298
13.3 Short-term effects of a meal 299
13.4 Tissue metabolic physiology 300
13.5 Whole-animal metabolic physiology 303
13.5.1 Respiration and excretion 303
13.5 2 Protein turnover 305
13.6 Long-term effects of food intake 305
13.6.1 Protein intake, synthesis and growth 307
13.7 Amino acid flux model: food intake and amino acid flux 308
13.8 Biochemical correlates of food intake 309
13.9 Effects on body composition and growth efficiency 311
13.10 Physiological effects and the regulation of food intake 316
13.11 References 319
14 Feeding Management 332
Anders Alanärä, Sunil Kadri and Mihalis Paspatis
14.1 Introduction 332
14.2 Feed planning and production plans 332
14.3 Estimating growth 337
14.4 Variation in feed intake 338
14.4.1 Temporal variation 339
14.4.2 Seasonal variation 340
14.5 Distribution of feed 341
14.5.1 Number of meals and feeding rate 341
14.5.2 Diel timing of feeding 342
14.5.3 Feed dispersal 343
14.6 Feeding techniques 344
14.6.1 Hand-feeding 344
14.6.2 Fixed feed ration systems 345
14.6.3 Demand feeding systems 345
14.6.4 The combined use of feeding techniques 347
14.7 References 347
15 Nutrient Partitioning and the Influence of Feed Composition on Body Composition 354
Malcolm Jobling
15.1 Introduction 354
15.2 Morphometrics and relationships among chemical components 355
15.3 Patterns of lipid deposition and storage 358
15.4 Temporal changes in body composition 361
15.5 Muscle (fillet) composition and factors that influence 'quality' 365
15.6 Concluding comments 371
15.7 References 371
Glossary of Terms 377
Index 415
